Literature+Review

** ﻿ **** Literature Review **

This is draft version (RESEARCH PLAN section has the final version of entire PROPOSAL)

Differentiation offers a way to maximum learning for all students by meeting each student where they are academically (McTighe, 2005;Tomlinson 1999). It is a way educators can accommodate for differences in learners’ readiness and interests. Tomlinson and McTighe (2006) identified three areas where differentiation can occur: content, process, and assessment. Another concern of educators is teaching 21st century skills technology skills as identified by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2004) report. These skills are clearly delineated in the International Society for Technology Education’s technology standards (NET-S). To meet all these needs, in 1995 Dodge and Marshall devised the WebQuest. Their purpose was to create a means to harness the power of the Internet into a manageable unit of instruction that would offer authentic learning opportunities in a scaffolding manner that would increase student use of higher order thinking skills (Gaskill, McNulty, & Brooks, 2006; Ikpeze & Boyd, 2007; Polly & Ausband, 2009; Schweizer, 2007). Research on the effectiveness of WebQuests on learning has shown mixed results. Why? There are several reasons: 1) the task is not intrinsically interesting to students; 2) the students became distracted by the technology; and 3) added cognitive load of having to learn an application to create a technology-based project (Gaskill, McNulty, & Brooks, 2006; Hammond & Ferster, 2009; Strickland, 2005; VanFossen, 2009; In two experiments, Gaskill, McNulty, and Brooks (2006) compared the effectiveness of traditional instruction to using a WebQuest with high school students. In the first experiment, students were randomly divided into experimental and control groups. Then all students were given a pre-test on the social studies content that would be taught. Over the course of four days both groups were taught the content. The control group listened to lectures, took notes, watched a movie, and participated in discussions about the social studies topic. The experimental group went to the computer lab and worked through the WebQuest individually. It contained a scoring rubric and had a Powerpoint presentation as its final product. The teacher was available to answer questions and make sure students were on task. After the four days a post-test was administered. Contrary to their hypothesis, the results showed that the control group scored significantly higher than the experimental group. A second experiment was conducted where the study topic was science (geology). Both control and experimental group were administered a pre-test. The control group was lectured to, took notes, asked questions, and looked at rock and mineral samples. The experimental group worked in pairs using a WebQuest consisting of information links and the task of creating a Powerpoint. The teacher was there to answer questions and assist with technical questions. After four days of instruction all students were post-tested. Their results showed that pre- and post-test scores were not significantly different. Interviews of students who used the WebQuests revealed that the students generally liked using the WebQuest better than traditional instruction and they felt they had learned more than had they been taught via traditional instructional methods. Thus, they believed they had learned more than the quantitative data suggest. A possible limitation of the study was that the history teacher “may have inadvertently rehearsed student responses to the test.” (Gaskill, McNulty, & Brooks, 2006, p. 136) Likewise, Strickland (2006) found in her study that students who used WebQuests scored lower in content knowledge when tested than those students who learned content via traditional instructional methods. This study looked at how well seventh grade students learned about the Texas Revolution based on a state standardized test. Students in the control group were taught via lecture, reading the textbook, studying vocabulary, reading historical fiction, watching videos, completing worksheets, and participating in class discussion. They also had to complete a hands-on project where they had to design a themed poster, “The Road to Freedom” which was a timeline of events made into a road with events represented by “street signs.” The WebQuest task involved students making a newscast of the war. Students made background slideshows to enhance their presentation. Limitations of the study were noted that the “traditional assignment” was very engaging requiring higher order thinking skills to complete it; moreover, the students were all very computer savvy, thus the novelty of technology was not a motivating factor. The researcher also noted that WebQuests: 1) are not all well constructed; 2) require cooperative groups; 3) despite supplying links for research, students can navigate away from sites. Additionally, the researcher raised the question of whether WebQuests are better at teaching skills than content? Ipkeze & Boyd (2007) qualitative research appears to begin to address Strickland’s closing question that perhaps WebQuests are best at developing skills. . In their study they conducted a long term WebQuest using a problem based learning approach with WebQuest task asking students to answer: “What choices can I make to protect the environment?, “What choices can I make that are harmful to the environment?” and “Why is environmental protection important? Students had to play different roles in society: manufacturer, consumer, government official, etc. Adjunct activities included two 50 minute lessons where they worked on making connections between what is read and the real world. Also, two activities were used to teach critical reading: evaluating authenticity of information and critiquing advertisisng. Their findings indicated that the WebQuest provided “opportunities for collaboration, thoughtful connections, and critical reading.” (p. 647) Further, that it helped develop their search, retrieval, multimedia, and hypertext reading skills. MacGregor & Lou (2004/2005) conducted a study that compared two methods of use of WebQuests. The WebQuest task was for fourth grade students to create a slideshow, to be shown to second grade students. One group was given the WebQuest and criteria for completing it while the other group was given a set of very explicit instructions about what information should be included and how the information should be organized; they were also provided with concept maps. The group that was provided with more concrete criteria scored better on free recall, organization, and content then did the group that had “more freedom.” Students also rated the web sites used to obtain information. Web site features that were rated negatively were: lots of un-interrupted text, minimal headings, a lot of menus with links that took you away from the main page, and too busy. Positive rated web page features were: fast fact boxes, section locators, still graphics explained by textual elements, audio and video clips, and contained clear pertinent information all on one page. In yet another study by VanFossen, the assumption that WebQuests were intrinsically motivating was disproved. Specifically, when students, in grades 3-11, were asked about whether they enjoyed WebQuests more than traditional lessons on average 43% found WebQuests either less enjoyable or about the equally enjoyable to traditional lessons. Similarly, 40.2% of students thought they learned less or about the same from the WebQuest as compared to traditional instruction. So, despite the fact that the majority of students enjoy and believe they learn more from WebQuests, there is still a large percent who do not feel that way. So, how does one construct a WebQuest that aid the learning of content? So based on the literature it appears that clear criteria for what is expected, ways to support learning, and web links to information that contains information that is not only appropriate level for learner but has design features (multimedia, otherwise known as “learning objects”) that facilitate students’ ability to understand the text. Further, acknowledge that the curriculum being taught is not just subject area content, but language arts, information skills, and technology skills. Therefore the number of standards being covered is much broader. Rubrics to assess what is learned need to reflect all of these components. The proposed research will use a WebQuest requiring students to create a digital story about which planet is most worthy of NASA funding. Thus, research studies about student created digital videos were also evaluated to better understand their pedagogic strengths and weaknesses. Taking a qualitative research approach, Kearney and Schuck (2005) conducted five case studies across grades K-12. They examined the quality of film-making, the final product, and what students had learned. They gathered data using questionnaires, observation, videos of classes, interviews of teachers and focus groups of students. In addition the student produced videos were analyzed. Their findings indicate that student created video tasks provide students with “a strong sense of ownership, self-regulation, and contributing to self-esteem.” From the teachers’ point of view it offered means for authentic assessment and that students’ developed “deeper conceptual understanding of the curriculum.” (p. 2866). Students were observed to function autonomously, be on-task, and motivated. Also, students’ personalities were reflected in their products. The most motivating audience for students of all ages were their own peer group. Despite all these positive outcomes it was noted that that curricular content learning was somewhat low. As previous research notes sometime the technology impedes the learning of content. The feedback from reviewing videos and opportunity to edit was valuable in terms of correcting mistakes. Researchers noted the important of teachers modeling and supporting (scaffolding) students through the storyboard writing process. They recommend that teachers make students “sell” their storyboard before they are allowed to procedure to the production phase. Manfra and Hammond ((2006) conducted a case study of two social studies teachers, one 7th grade and one 11th grade, who had their students create digital documentaries. They focused on the effects of the teachers’ instructional approaches. The 7th grade teacher was identified as “manager of content” and the 11th grade teacher as “facilitator.” The 7th grade teacher was more concerned with content and provided students with formative notes on their research and scripts. About 50% of the time the notes focused on content, 30% on grammar and structure, and 20% providing encouragement. The 11th grade teacher posed conceptual questions to students throughout the process. All the 7th grade students completed their video projects while not all of the 11th grade students were able to finish. The 7th grade students videos reflected content knowledge but not deep understanding or creativity. Many of the 11th grade students’ scripts went beyond the intended content. Although, very few addressed the primary question of “What is the legacy of this event?” Additionally, the videos were not substantial and four even contained factual inaccuracies. The overarching lesson learned was that the teachers’ philosophy and aims drive instruction more than any other aspect. In a mixed approach study, Hofer and Swan (2005), examined the effects of digital documentary creation by pre-service social studies teachers on their content learning and disposition to integrate technology as future teachers. The researchers believe it is important to harness the technology tools that students use outside of the school environment. In doing so they recommend that teachers focus on the content first then find ways to use technology to facilitate the learning of that content. Cited benefits of digital storytelling are: development of language skills, creating student voice, promoting student creativity, accommodating different learning styles, and ability levels. The students were assigned to create 3-5 minute videos about one of seven historical events focusing on the legacy of that evident. Students were to use primary and secondary resources to answer the question. Then collect pictures, develop a narrative, and storyboard it. The video editing software was demonstrated for them. Classroom observations and interviews revealed that students were comfortable doing the project. Unfortunately, the videos, rated via rubric, frequently showed that there was “shallow treatment of the content.” In conclusion the researchers recommend that teachers focus on the scope and sequence of instruction of content so students don’t get carried away with the technology. Similarly, Brown’s 2007 case study showed that pre-service teachers often got “caught up” in the aesthetics of the technology over the substance. The need to “decenter” the technology was noted. A Gifted 5th grade class was also observed. Unlike the pre-service teachers who had a clearly defined assignment, the fifth graders were allowed to freely explore a video editing program, In both cases, hidden talents were discovered and higher order thinking skills were used. The gifted group received “just in time” support and were more able to stay focused on the content, research, and design than the graduate students. The researcher concludes by recommending that teachers should focus equally on both the “journey and the end point”, negotiate the goal, allow for student media selection, balance individual and group work, recordkeeping via journals, and reflective analysis via teamwork and peer analysis. The best use of digital storytelling (DS) seems to be when it is used as a means to develop writing and speaking skill as demonstrated through the research of Gregory & Steelman (2008) and Sylvester & Greenidge (2009). Gregory and Steelman’s research looked using digital storytelling with economically disadvantaged students. The use of DS helped improve students’ communication skills both oral and written as well as helped students develop positive self images. A unifying theme through the research on WebQuests and student created digital stories is the need for the content to be at the center and the inability to readily accomplish this goal. It appears that the cognitive load placed upon students to learn both content and technology skills is overwhelming. It is also evident that direct teacher instruction and facilitated dialogue are key comments in maximizing learning. So, then in what ways can the cognitive load be reduced and access to the teacher be maximized? It makes sense to “off-load” the learning of skills. This can be easily accomplished by using programs that students already are familiar with. Yet, to provide no instruction on software use would leave many students to struggle. Thus, by providing a series of short (2-5 minute) screencasts embedded in the WebQuest that students could readily access would allow them to advance at their own pace, explore additional features of the applications, and allow more time for the teacher to focus on content acquisition. Addtionally, vodcasts of the teacher modeling different steps in the process would also facilitate learning as students could use it for remediation or review to reinforce learning. To date, there is no research to date on screencasting for elementary students, although, research on its use in higher education and distance learning has been done. Specifically, in Brown, Brown, Fine, Luterbach, Sugar, and Vinciguerra (2008) qualitative study they identify four types of podcasts: audio, video, screencast, and slideshow. The ways each were used in distance education classes are described. They include: lecture, demonstration, assignment instructions, elaboration/clarification, feedback, guest lecturer, and creating an online social presence. Of interest are the demonstration, assignment instructions, and mini-lecture aspects. Benefits noted were the ability to accommodate different learning styles and provide access for the disabled. In 2009 Gkatzidou and Pearson reported on the adaptation of learning modules to vodcasts that would be accessible from mp3 players. The learning modules were further modified to make them more accessible by redesigning the user interface. Many of the fully-abled students reported appreciating the design modification because they aided their learning The vodcasts were used for revision, part of independent learning, and reinforcement of lectures. Peterson (2007) provides preliminary information on how screencasts have helped improve online graduate library students learning of the Dewey Decimal classification system. Librarians have also studied the use of online tutorials through the use of Google Analytics to evaluate not only how many times the screencasts are accessed but also how much of the screencast is actually watched. This research reveals a high use of access, with screencasts being watched, on average, between 34-71% through. The above research indicates that the best way to evaluate content learning, use of higher order thinking skills, and student motivation is by using a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Had the researchers relied solely on students’ and teachers’ perceptions of amount learned, they would have overstated the efficacy of using WebQuests and digital stories as means for knowledge acquisition. Thus, the use of pre-and post-testing greatly enhanced the accuracy of reporting the amount of content students’ knew. On the other hand, just relying on factual knowledge testing one would have gotten a skewed view on the acquisition of higher order thinking skills.